Chapter 7

Concept of Holy War

Christian Perspective

In speaking with Muslim members of the steering committee, there is an interest by Muslims to know something of the Christian perception of a Just War, as well as a Christian perspective on the Crusades. For their part, they would like the Christian participants to understand that true Jihad or Holy War is primarily a spiritual warfare within oneself. As this concept of spiritual warfare within oneself is also known within the Christian tradition, it is suggested that Christian presenters speak to all three aspects of this topic:

  • What is a just war?
  • The Crusades
  • Spiritual Warfare

Offered here are some notes on each section from different sources. If the presenter decides, for reasons of time, not to speak to a particular aspect, all should be prepared to answer questions on any aspect.

1. A Just War

The Catechism of the Catholic Church1 addresses the issue of war under the heading "Avoiding War" in articles 2307-2317. The following is a brief summary of these articles:

2307:
The principle of the sanctity of life, enshrined in the fifth commandment, forbids the intentional destruction of human life. Christians are obliged to pray and to work for peace.
2308:
All governments and citizens are obliged to avoid war. However, governments have "the right of lawful self-defence, once all peace efforts have failed."
2309:
There are four conditions for the "legitimate defence by military force" ("just war" doctrine):
  • That the damage inflicted by the aggressor on a nation or community of nations will be lasting, grave and certain;
  • That all other means have proven impractical or ineffective;
  • That there are serious prospects of success;
  • That the effects of using arms must be proportionate—they must not produce "evils or disorders graver than the evil to be eliminated.

Evaluation of these conditions belongs to the prudential judgment of those with responsibility for the common good.

2310:
In this case, governments can impose on citizens, "the obligations necessary for national defence";
2311:
Governments must respect conscientious objectors. However, such objectors must serve the community in some other way;
2312:
The moral law must be maintained in conflicts;
2313:
Humane treatment must be given to non-combatants, the wounded and prisoners. Obeying orders is not an excuse for crimes against humanity. Genocide is always evil.
2314:
The indiscriminate destruction of whole cities or vast areas and their inhabitants is evil. Modern means make such evil more possible.
2315:
Over-accumulation of arms and the arms race militates against world peace.
2316:
Since the productions and the sale of arms affects the common good of nations and the international community, governments have the right to regulate them.
2317:
Injustice, excessive economic or social inequalities, envy, distrust and pride threaten peace and cause wars. Governments and nations must seek to eliminate them.

Some questions to consider in the face of potential war: Is it self-defence? Is the damage being threatened by the aggressor lasting, grave and certain? What is the international common good? Will it be promoted by engaging in conflict? If war eventuates, can it be discriminate in its effects?

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2. The Crusades

The Christian initiated events, which became known in the thirteenth century as the Crusades or 'carrying of the cross', began with the call of Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont in 1095 for an armed expeditionary force to reassert Christian control over the Holy Land against the Muslims. There were nine Crusades in all between 1096 and 1290 although perhaps the first three, which ended in a negotiated settlement on Jerusalem in 1192, are the most significant.

The Crusades have been judged to be the result of a combination of forces in the West including a developing expansionism in Europe as well as reaction to pressure by the Seljuk Turks upon the Byzantine Empire. Rewards for the Christians included booty, glory, acquisition of territory and the promised remission of sins for service to God. The destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre by Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim in 1009 may have been a catalyst—but it can hardly be judged as a general attack on Christians by Muslims since al-Hakim was widely believed by his contemporaries to be suffering from insanity.

By the medieval period Islam had been transformed by its expansion into Iraq, Syria and Egypt during which it came into cultural contact with some of the great centres of civilisation of the East. As learning took place at a deep level, Muslims had left behind their desert tribal identity and cultivated the 'foreign sciences' of Greek philosophy, medicine and astronomy. The Latin Church seems to have reacted in a decisive way outwardly to what it perceived as the Muslim threat. From the 11th century Christianity developed an aggressive attitude against Muslims and Islam both ideologically and politically.

During the Crusades Jerusalem as a holy city and a religious symbol for both Christians and Muslims was captured by the Crusaders from the Fatimids in 496/1099 but returned to the Muslims again under their great military leader Saladin in 583/1187. Then from 626/1229 to 641/1244 it was restored to the Crusaders by a treaty made between Muslims and Frederick II. To add to the confusion Constantinople, whose protection was one of the original reasons for the Crusades, was sacked by the Christians themselves during the Fourth Crusade (1204).

There are conflicting views about the impact on the Muslim world of these events, which brought large numbers of Christians from Western Europe into contact with the mostly Muslim-inhabited regions of Palestine, Syria and Egypt. Some argue that the effects of the Crusades upon the Islamic world were negligible, that they did not unite the Muslims against a common threat were ultimately only a transient and localised episode.

However the real significance of the impact of the Christian Crusades may have been more internal to Islam and more lasting than many have imagined, with the Muslim understanding of jihad undergoing development from its early emphasis on an aggressive struggle against polytheism within the bounds of the Islamic state to take on new social and political dimensions in the 12th century. The onslaught of Western Christianity in the period of the Crusades had the effect of making Muslims more aware of the political and social dimensions of their religious identity.

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3. Spiritual Warfare

The aspect of Jihad or Holy War has more significance when applied to the battle of individuals in their personal spiritual growth. The history of Judaism and Christianity has many references to Angels and Devils/Satan/Lucifer/the enemy and the conflict, which arises if of a real, but interior and constantly occurring nature.

In the account of the Fall of Humankind in the book of Genesis reference to the serpent "the most cunning of all the animals" is used as a disguise for a being hostile to God and man, and identified with the adversary or the devil (Genesis 3:1)2. The book of Job—a famous figure in ancient history and a model of virtue is tempted by Satan to test him to discover if he remains faithful to God despite misfortune (Job1:6-12). In the New Testament at the beginning of Jesus' ministry we find him struggling with the devil in the desert and at the conclusion of that struggle we are told the devil left him (Matt.4:10) and angels came and ministered to him. Peter cautions the early Christians to be way of internal conflict. "Be sober and vigilant. Your opponent the devil is prowling around like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour." (1Pet.5: 7-8). In his letter to the Ephesians, Paul uses the explicit war image to the Ephesians: "Put on the armour of God so that you may be able to stand firm against the tactics of the devil; for our struggle is not with flesh and blood but with the principalities, with the powers, with the world rulers of this present darkness, with the evil spirits in the heavens." (Ephesians 6:11)

Quite significant in more modern times is the contribution of Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) to the understanding of SPIRITUAL WARFARE waged in the life of Christians. As a Spanish nobleman and soldier he was wounded in Pamplona during a French invasion of Novarre. During his convalescence he had a conversion experience which led him to pursue Christian rather than worldly values and he was passionate to share these insights. He wrote and conducted spiritual exercises, which became popular and are widely used by spiritual leaders today. Two relevant aspects of these exercises are Ignatius' exposition of the discovering of the good and evil spirits within (Discernment of Spirits) and the two standards.

Ignatius had gradually come to realise that he was being stirred by opposite spirits, one from God and one from the devil. He developed strategies for discernment in order to help people to recognise those things in their lives that led them to God (good spirits) and those that lead them away from God (evil spirits). They gradually come to recognize different movements in the soul, to embrace those that are good and reject those that are bad.

Most pertinent to our discussion is the exercise of the two standards, a study of the internal struggle between good and evil. Here Ignatius uses images and terminology of warfare and applies them to the spiritual battle. The first standard is one of Christ, the supreme leader and Lord; the second standard is of Lucifer, the deadly enemy of our human nature. One imagines the chief of the entire enemy on the battlefield in the vast plain of Babylon3, seated on a great throne of fire and smoke, his appearance inspiring horror and terror. He summons innumerable demons and scatters them throughout the whole world overlooking no place or person, goading them to covet riches, undue honour and pride. From these three (riches, undue honour and pride) other vices follow. In a similar way the sovereign, and true commander Christ, is pictured standing in battle mode on a lowly place in a great plain about the region of Jerusalem4. His appearance is beautiful and attractive. It is noticed that he has chosen so many from among his army to spread his sacred message among all peoples no matter what their state or condition. The address of the Lord to his followers is to seek to help all, not to prefer riches to poverty, honour to dishonour, and pride to respectful self- acceptance. To conclude this exercise of the two standards, participants undertaking the spiritual exercises of St Ignatius are encouraged to opt for spiritual self-acceptance under the standard of the Sovereign Commander-In-Chief.

Anyone familiar with "The Screw Tape Letters" by the 20th century author C S Lewis (also author of The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe fame) can see the subtlety and deceit of evil spirits (the devil) humorously depicted. Again, the allegory of Tolkein's The Lord of the Rings currently filming in our theatres illustrates the struggle of good vs. evil.

Footnotes

  1. http://www.usccb.org/catechism
  2. All scripture references sourced from http://www.nccbuscc.org/nab/bible
  3. In the Scriptures, Babylon is associated with wickedness and debauchery, as the Jews were exiled to Babylon in the 6th century B.C.
  4. Jerusalem, the holy city, God's chosen center for salvation.